Julius Rosenberg (May 12, 1918 – June 19, 1953) and Ethel Rosenberg (born Greenglass; September 28, 1915 – June 19, 1953) were an American married couple convicted of espionage for the Soviet Union. Their crimes included providing top-secret information about American radar, sonar, jet propulsion engines, and nuclear weapon designs. They were executed by the United States federal government in 1953 at Sing Sing prison in Ossining, New York, becoming the first American civilians executed for espionage during peacetime. Other co-conspirators received prison sentences, including Ethel’s brother, David Greenglass, who testified against them under a plea agreement, Harry Gold, and Morton Sobell. German physicist Klaus Fuchs, another key spy, was convicted in the United Kingdom. For decades, many, including the Rosenbergs’ sons, Michael and Robert Meeropol, have maintained that Ethel was innocent and have sought her exoneration from multiple U.S. presidents.

Declassified U.S. government records after the fall of the Soviet Union, including decoded Soviet cables under the code-name Venona, confirmed Julius’s role as a courier and recruiter for Soviet intelligence. In 2008, the National Archives released much of the grand jury testimony related to their prosecution. Additional records obtained via Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests further illuminated the case.

Early Lives and Education

Julius Rosenberg was born in New York City to Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire. By age 11, his family had moved to the Lower East Side, where his parents worked in local shops. Julius attended Seward Park High School and became active in the Young Communist League while studying at City College of New York during the Great Depression. He graduated in 1939 with a degree in electrical engineering.

Ethel Greenglass was born in Manhattan and had a brother, David. She initially aspired to be an actress and singer but eventually took a secretarial job. Ethel became involved in labor activism and joined the Young Communist League, where she met Julius in 1936. The couple married in 1939.

Espionage Activities

Julius Rosenberg worked at the Army Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, from 1940 to 1945. He was discharged after the Army discovered his prior membership in the Communist Party USA. His work involved electronics, communications, radar, and missile controls during World War II.

In 1942, Rosenberg was recruited by Semyon Semyonov, a Soviet NKVD agent, and later handled by Aleksandr Feklisov. Julius provided classified reports from Emerson Radio, including a proximity fuze, and recruited others into Soviet service, including Joel Barr, Alfred Sarant, William Perl, and Morton Sobell. Perl provided thousands of documents from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, including complete design drawings for the P-80 Shooting Star, the first U.S. operational jet fighter.

Julius also recruited his brother-in-law, David Greenglass, who worked on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos. Additionally, engineer Russell McNutt, working at Oak Ridge, was recruited to provide uranium enrichment information. While the Soviet nuclear program advanced quickly, much of the intelligence Julius supplied served primarily as verification rather than the foundation for their nuclear development.

The Rosenberg Case

Arrest and Grand Jury

The espionage investigation intensified after Klaus Fuchs, a German physicist, was discovered passing Manhattan Project secrets to the USSR in 1950. Fuchs identified Harry Gold as his courier, leading to Gold’s arrest in May. David Greenglass was arrested shortly after and confessed, implicating Julius and connecting him to Soviet agent Anatoli Yakovlev. Julius was arrested on July 17, 1950, and Ethel followed on August 11, after testifying before a grand jury.

To strengthen the case, prosecutors pressured the Rosenbergs to implicate others. Ethel’s role appeared weaker, but testimony from David and Ruth Greenglass was altered under interrogation to emphasize her involvement, claiming she typed up top-secret documents. The grand jury indicted both Julius and Ethel on eleven counts of espionage, alongside co-conspirators.

Trial and Conviction

The trial began on March 6, 1951, in the Southern District of New York, presided over by Judge Irving Kaufman. Julius and Ethel were represented by Emmanuel Bloch, while the prosecution, led by Assistant U.S. Attorney Irving Saypol, relied on testimony from David Greenglass. He claimed he provided a sketch of an implosion-type atomic bomb design, which Julius allegedly passed to the Soviets.

On March 29, 1951, both were convicted and sentenced to death on April 5 under the Espionage Act of 1917. Judge Kaufman cited the impact of their actions on the Korean War, attributing tens of thousands of deaths to their espionage. The government offered to spare their lives if Julius disclosed other spies, but the couple refused to admit guilt, issuing a public statement asserting their innocence.

Campaign for Clemency

After the trial, campaigns emerged to save the Rosenbergs, citing Ethel’s minimal role. Widespread protests occurred in the U.S. and Europe. Intellectuals, artists, and scientists, including Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Einstein, and Pablo Picasso, appealed for clemency. Even Pope Pius XII intervened. Despite international and domestic outcry, President Dwight D. Eisenhower denied all requests for clemency, as did subsequent appeals.

Communist organizations also campaigned on their behalf, confirmed later through KGB records. Supporters framed them as Jewish peace activists unfairly punished, and many critics accused the U.S. government of antisemitism.

Execution

The Rosenbergs’ execution was initially delayed by a Supreme Court stay but was carried out on June 19, 1953, at Sing Sing. Julius died on the first electric shock, while Ethel required five shocks due to complications, resulting in the horrific witnessing of smoke from her head. They were the only American civilians executed for espionage during the Cold War. Funeral services in Brooklyn drew around 500 attendees, with thousands standing outside. They were buried in Wellwood Cemetery, Pinelawn, New York.

Legacy and Controversy

The Rosenberg case remains one of the most controversial espionage trials in U.S. history. While declassified documents later confirmed Julius’s espionage, debate continues regarding Ethel’s culpability. Their children, Michael and Robert Meeropol, have spent decades advocating for their mother’s exoneration. The case exemplifies the intensity of Cold War fears, the reach of Soviet espionage, and the consequences of political and judicial pressure during periods of national paranoia.

The Rosenbergs’ story continues to provoke discussion about justice, loyalty, and the ethical boundaries of government prosecution. It reflects the intersection of espionage, civil liberties, and the heightened tensions of a world divided by ideology during the mid-20th century.

EASY POINTS

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg: Cold War Spies Executed

Julius Rosenberg (1918–1953) and Ethel Rosenberg (1915–1953) were an American couple convicted of espionage for the Soviet Union. They provided classified information about radar, jet propulsion, and nuclear weapons, leading to their execution at Sing Sing prison in 1953—the only American civilians executed for espionage during peacetime.

Early Lives and Background

Julius Rosenberg:

• Born in NYC to Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire.
• Attended Seward Park High School and City College of New York, earning a degree in electrical engineering in 1939.
• Active in the Young Communist League during the Great Depression.

Ethel Greenglass:

• Born in Manhattan, sister of David Greenglass.
• Initially pursued acting and singing, later worked as a secretary.
• Joined the Young Communist League, meeting Julius in 1936.

Image Suggestion: A black-and-white photo of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg together.

Espionage Activities

• Julius Rosenberg: Worked at Army Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories at Fort Monmouth, NJ (1940–1945).
• Recruited by Soviet NKVD agents Semyon Semyonov and Aleksandr Feklisov.
• Passed top-secret military technology to the USSR, including radar, jet fighter designs, and atomic bomb information.
• Recruited his brother-in-law David Greenglass and other engineers, including Joel Barr and Morton Sobell.
• Ethel Rosenberg: Allegedly typed up classified documents, though her level of involvement remains disputed.

Image Suggestion: Manhattan Project schematic or a Fort Monmouth lab photo.

Arrest and Trial

Timeline:

• 1950: Arrests of Harry Gold, David Greenglass, Julius, and Ethel.
• March 6, 1951: Trial begins in the Southern District of New York.
• March 29, 1951: Both convicted on eleven counts of espionage.
• April 5, 1951: Sentenced to death.
• Co-conspirators received prison sentences; Klaus Fuchs was convicted in the UK.
• Judge Irving Kaufman cited their actions’ impact on the Korean War, attributing tens of thousands of deaths.

Image Suggestion: Courtroom sketch from the Rosenberg trial.

Clemency Campaign

• Widespread protests in the U.S. and Europe.
• Appeals from Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Einstein, Pablo Picasso, and Pope Pius XII.
• Communist organizations campaigned for their release.
• All requests for clemency denied by President Eisenhower.

Image Suggestion: Protesters holding “Save the Rosenbergs” signs.

Execution

• Date: June 19, 1953, at Sing Sing prison.
• Julius died instantly; Ethel required five shocks.
• Buried at Wellwood Cemetery, Pinelawn, New York.
• Funeral attended by around 500 people.

Image Suggestion: Sing Sing prison exterior photo from the 1950s.

Legacy and Controversy

• Declassified documents, including Venona project cables, confirmed Julius’s espionage.
• Debate remains over Ethel’s culpability; sons Michael and Robert Meeropol advocate for her exoneration.
• The case highlights:
  • Cold War fears and political paranoia.
  • Ethical and judicial controversies in espionage trials.
  • Tensions between civil liberties and national security.

Image Suggestion: Michael and Robert Meeropol holding a photo of their parents.

Key Takeaways

• Julius Rosenberg was a confirmed Soviet spy; Ethel’s role remains debated.
• Their execution shocked the world and remains the only U.S. civilian peacetime espionage death penalty case.
• The Rosenbergs’ story illustrates the extreme tensions of the Cold War era.